Golf

Golf Specific Injury overview

Enrique Garrido reviews the injuries that professional touring golf players experience.

Golf seems like a gentle, innocuous sport. Yet even among professional touring players, injuries happen. On average, they sustain two injuries a year (McCarroll & Gioe 1995)^[1] and lose five weeks of playing time. Professionals generally suffer as a result of overuse. Most problems go back to poor technique among amateurs, wildly swing mechanics or technical errors near impact.

The most common injury site in male professional golfers is the back, followed by the left wrist and shoulder. Female professionals are more likely to injure the left wrist, followed by the lower back (McCarroll 1996)^[2]. Amateurs have the most trouble with the elbow, which is the number one problem site for women and number two for men.

Back

Four out of five golfers, at whatever level, will suffer low-back pain at some point in their lives. This is usually down to sporadic play, poor swing mechanics, or poor physical fitness in recreational golfers.

The golf swing has evolved from a rhythmic flowing movement that generates increased power by using a larger shoulder turn and less hip turn. This modern swing technique, based on a tightly coiled body, enables maximum clubhead acceleration, but at the cost of increased torque in the back (Hosea & Gatt 1996)^[3]. It leaves the back vulnerable at the top of the backswing and during hyperextension in downswing and follow-through.

In a comparative study of amateurs and professionals (Hosea, Gatt, Gertner 1994)^[4], the amateur players generated approximately 80% greater peak lateral bending and shear loads, and 50% more torque than the pros; and generated 90% of their peak muscle activity during a golf swing, against the professionals' 80%. These inferior swing mechanics may predispose amateur players to muscle strains, facet disease, or herniated discs in the spine.

Improved swing technique and physical fitness are the keys to avoiding back pain. Strength, flexibility, and endurance all play a part: fatigue leads to uncoordinated muscle firing, resulting in injuries. Effective warm-ups, stretching, and core-strengthening work will all lessen injury risk. Players with recurrent back pain should change to a smooth, flowing 'classic' swing - pelvis and shoulders rotate together, and the forward heel lifts at the top of the backswing - to reduce torque on their spines. In the follow-through, the player should learn to adopt a straight-up body position, avoiding hyperextension of the lumbar spine.

Wrist and hand

Most injuries occur in the left (leading) hand. During the golf swing of a right-handed golfer, the left wrist undergoes a smaller arc of dorsiflexion and palmar-flexion but a larger ulnar and radial deviation than the right wrist (Chao et al. 1987)^[5]. Overuse or poor wrist control during the swing can cause excessive movement leading to injury.

Fractures: These are uncommon, but fractures of the hamate (the triangular bone in the hand sitting below the ring and little fingers) are a golfing speciality, accounting for a third of all hamate breaks (Gupta et al. 1989)^[6]. Despite this, damage to the hook of the hamate - caused by a direct blow from the handle of the golf club during a 'fat shot' - is often overlooked. Patients complain of vague, deep-seated pain or a weak grip. There are local tenderness and pain to resist flexion of the little finger. A carpal tunnel X-ray view or a CT scan is necessary to show the fracture radiographically. Chronic fractures may lead to rupture of flexor tendons to the ring and little fingers and neuropathy of the ulnar nerve (Bowen 1973)^[7].

The acute hook of hamate fractures rarely heals, so painful bone fragments will likely need to be surgically excised, after which full activity is regained within four to six weeks. To prevent this injury, the butt of the club should be of appropriate size and length, extending beyond the palm of the leading hand. Tendon injuries: De Quervain's Disease is a tenosynovitis of the abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis (deep muscles of the forearm). This overuse injury is caused by a tight club grip and repeated ulnar deviation during the golf swing. Clinical findings include swelling and tenderness at the radial styloid and a positive Finkelstein test (ulnar deviation of the wrist with the thumb fully adducted causes marked pain).

Splints, taping, and NSAIDs will relieve mild symptoms. Severe cases usually need corticosteroid injection. Where inflammation has resulted in thickening and stenosis of the fibro-osseous tunnel, surgery is indicated.

Flexor carpi ulnaris and flexor carpi radialis tendinitis are found in the right hand of the right-handed golfer, arising from the broader range of flexion and extension in the right (trailing) hand during the swing. Crepitus, localised swelling, tenderness, and pain to resist palmar flexion is present in both FCU and FCR tendinitis. Resisted pronation and radial deviation will cause pain in FCR tendinitis. Radiographs can show up calcific deposits in the tendon of FCU (Kief Haber and Stern 1992)^[8].

Splints (in neutral position), NSAIDs, a temporary activity restriction, and corticosteroid injections are usually successful, but recalcitrant cases may require surgery.

Extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis is characterised by tenderness over the ulnar aspect of the dorsal wrist. Symptoms are exacerbated by forced ulnar deviation and flexion of the wrist. Golfers with a tendency to 'casting' are at risk of developing this inflammation. It can usually be treated conservatively as with FCU/FCR above, plus modification of the swing. Pain in the same region may alternatively indicate a rupture of the ulnar septum with subluxation of ECU. In this case, the golfer usually complains of a painful snap as the subluxed tendon reduces during pronation of the forearm in the down-swing. Acute cases should be immobilised for six weeks. Chronic cases may respond to taping but will usually require reconstruction of the fibro-osseous tunnel.

Elbow

Lateral epicondylitis (tennis elbow) is golfers' most common elbow problem. It occurs on the outer aspect of the left elbow in the right-handed golfer. The motion of the left arm during the swing is similar to the backhand tennis stroke. The muscle contraction of the left elbow extensor mass during impact to maintain control of the club usually produces the injury. Clinically there is tenderness over the extensor mass 1-2cm distal to the lateral epicondyle. In severe cases, resisted wrist extension or passive wrist flexion will aggravate the pain. The most effective short-term treatment is corticosteroid injection, but to keep the condition at bay, patients will need to modify their activity (Smidt et al. 2002)^[9]. Once the acute symptoms have gone, patients should seek advice from a golf professional to reduce grip tension and swing errors (especially a flat swing plane). Clubs should have large grips, more flexible shafts (graphite or mechanically filtered steel), and heads with more significant sweet spots to reduce vibration. A counterforce brace in the proximal forearm significantly reduces vibration and acceleration forces at the elbow (Walther et al. 2002)^[10]. In recalcitrant cases, surgery is indicated.

Medial epicondylitis (golfer's elbow) is an overuse syndrome involving the musculotendinous origins of the flexor-pronator mass. Swing technique errors such as 'hitting from the top' can create excessive valgus stress on the elbow and lead to tension overload injury to the flexor-pronator group. Patients describe aching pain on the inner side of the elbow, frequently radiating into the forearm. Patients may also complain of grip strength weakness and pain to resisted wrist pronation and flexion. The associated ulnar nerve symptoms of this condition are probably secondary to local inflammation, resulting in neuritis and entrapment.

Conservative treatment is similar to that for lateral epicondylitis. Once symptoms have improved, patients should follow a supervised rehab programme. Initially, exercises are done with the elbow flexed, progressing into more significant extension as symptoms improve. The goal is to achieve better levels of strength and endurance than pre-injury. And, as with tennis elbow, the golfer must improve their technique and equipment. Counterforce bracing is helpful.

Shoulder

Shoulder pain is less common in golf than in overhead sports, but overuse injuries are frequently seen in the lead arm. Watch out for referred shoulder pain arising from cervical spondylosis, cervical disc disease, diaphragmatic irritation, and myocardial ischaemia.

The acromioclavicular joint is more commonly affected than the glenohumeral joint (Mallon and Colosimo 1995)^[11]. At the top of the backswing, there is significant cross-body adduction with an elevation of the left arm to 120 degrees. The cartilage separating the two articular surfaces of the acromioclavicular joint starts to deteriorate in the second decade of life. Repeated compression of a degenerated AC joint during the back-swing can lead to anterior shoulder pain. Treat initially by avoiding activities that worsen the pain, plus NSAIDs for pain relief. If pain persists, intra-articular steroid injection has improved symptoms for at least 12 months (Hossain et al. 2003)^[12].

One way to reduce the stress on the AC joint of the leading shoulder without sacrificing clubhead speed is to shorten the swing by ending the back-swing with the clubhead at a one o'clock instead of a three o'clock position. Golfers with persistent symptoms and advanced arthritis may benefit from resectioning of the distal clavicle to unload the painful joint.

Rotator cuff impairment will often cause shoulder pain in golfers from middle-age upwards (Jobe et al. 1986)^[13]. Indeed, the incidence of rotator cuff tears increases significantly after age 5O (Milgrom et al. 1995)^[14]. Electromyographic (EMG) studies of professional golfers have shown that the rotator cuff and the subscapularis muscle are highly active throughout the swing. Repeated stress to a degenerated tendon may lead to fibre failure, producing symptoms of bursitis or tendinitis; in cases of significant failure, the golfer will feel weakness elevating the shoulder. Partial rotator cuff tears are substantially more painful on resisted muscle action than complete tears. Patients will usually complain of pain and tenderness in the anterolateral shoulder, crepitus, and stiffness.

Selective isometric testing of muscle strength can help identify the tendon defect:

resisted elevation of the arm held in 90 degrees of flexion and in a mild internal rotation ('empty can test') can detect supraspinatus weakness
The Gerber lift-off test (resisted hand-behind-back move away from the body) is a very sensitive indicator for subscapularis weakness
resisted external rotation of the arm held at the side in neutral with the elbow flexed 90 degrees will show infraspinatus weakness.

Patients with partial-thickness rotator cuff tears should be started on NSAIDs and an exercise regime including strengthening and stretching to restore normal flexibility. If non-operative treatment fails, patients may benefit from careful arthroscopic surgical debridement.

Symptomatic patients with full-thickness or partial tears higher than 50% should be offered surgical repair.

Posterior instability: Younger competitive golfers may describe the pain and a sense of instability during their golf swing. Some players even complain of an audible clunk when the left lead arm is fully adducted and internally rotated at the top of the backswing or the initiation of the forward swing. The unopposed rotation action of the subscapularis muscle (which is highly active during the golf swing) may lead to posterior instability of the shoulder joint.

Physical examination typically reveals pain or symptoms of instability when the arm is flexed, adducted, and internally rotated. An axial load is applied to the elbow with the arm abducted 90 degrees and in neutral rotation. Posterior subluxation with a click may be noted. Most patients respond to an aggressive rehab programme of rotator cuff strengthening. If not, operative stabilisation, usually combined with subacromial decompression, is indicated (Hovis et al. 2002)^[15].

References

McCARROLL, J.R. and GIOE, T.J. (1995) Professional golfers and the price they pay. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 10, p. 54-70.
McCARROLL, J.R. (1996)The frequency of golf injuries. C//D/CS in Sports Medicine, 15, p. 1-7.
HOSEA, T.M. and GATT C.J. (1996) Back pain in golf. Clinics in Sports Medicine, 15 (1), p. 37-53.
HOSEA, T.M., GATT C.J. and GERTNER, E. (1994) Biomechanic analysis of the golfer's back. In: STOVER, C.N. et al. Feeling Up to Par: Medicine from Tee to Green, Philadelphia, FA Davis
CHAO, E.Y.S. et al. (1987) Biomechanics of the golf swing as related to club handle design. Biomechanics in Sports, A 1987 Update, DE-Vol 13/BED, 6, p. 107-111.
GUPTA, A. et al. (1989) Fractures of the hook of the hamate. Injury, 20 (5), p. 284-286.
BOWEN, T.L. (1973) Injuries of the hamate bone. Hand, 5, p. 235-238.
KIEF HABER, T.R. and STERN, P.J. (1992) Upper extremity tendinitis and overuse syndromes in the athlete. Clin Sports Med, 11, p. 39-56.
SMIDT, N. et al. (2002) Corticosteroid injections physiotherapy, or a wait and see policy for lat. Epicondylitis: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet, 359, p. 657-662.
WALTHER, M. et al. (2002) Biomechanical evaluation of braces used for treatment of epicondylitis. J Shoulder Elbow Surg, 11, p. 265-270.
MALLON, W.J. and COLOSIMO, A.J. (1995) Acromioclavicular joint injury in competitive golfers. J South OrthopAssoc, 4 (4), p. 277-282.
HOSSIAN, S. et al. (2003) lntra-articular steroid injection in the treatment of primary acromioclavicular arthritis. An assessment of the therapeutic effectiveness. JBJS (Br), 85, p. 72.
JOBE, F.W. et al. (1986) Rotator cuff function during a golf swing. Am J Sports Med, 14, p. 388-392.
MILGROM, C. et al. (1995) Rotator cuff changes in asymptomatic adults. The effect of age, hand dominance and gender. JBJS (Br), 77, p. 296-298.
HOVIS, D, et al. (2002) Posterior instability of the shoulder with secondary impingement in elite golfers. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 30 (6), p. 886-890.

Page Reference

If you quote information from this page in your work, then the reference for this page is:

GARRIDO, E. (2008) Golf Specific Injury overview [WWW] Available from: https://www.brianmac.co.uk/articles/article029.htm [Accessed

About the Author

Enrique Garrido is a clinical fellow in orthopaedics at University College London. His clinical interests include the adaptations of bone and soft tissue to exercise.


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Golf seems like a gentle, innocuous sport. Yet even among professional touring players, injuries happen. On average, they sustain two injuries a year (McCarroll & Gioe 1995)^[1] and lose five weeks of playing time. Professionals generally suffer as a result of overuse. Most problems go back to poor technique among amateurs, wildly swing mechanics or technical errors near impact. The most common injury site in male professional golfers is the back, followed by the left wrist and shoulder. Female professionals are more likely to injure the left wrist, followed by the lower back (McCarroll 1996)^[2]. Amateurs have the most trouble with the elbow, which is the number one problem site for women and number two for men. Back Four out of five golfers, at whatever level, will suffer low-back pain at some point in their lives. This is usually down to sporadic play, poor swing mechanics, or poor physical fitness in recreational golfers. The golf swing has evolved from a rhythmic flowing movement that generates increased power by using a larger shoulder turn and less hip turn. This modern swing technique, based on a tightly coiled body, enables maximum clubhead acceleration, but at the cost of increased torque in the back (Hosea & Gatt 1996)^[3]. It leaves the back vulnerable at the top of the backswing and during hyperextension in downswing and follow-through. In a comparative study of amateurs and professionals (Hosea, Gatt, Gertner 1994)^[4], the amateur players generated approximately 80% greater peak lateral bending and shear loads, and 50% more torque than the pros; and generated 90% of their peak muscle activity during a golf swing, against the professionals' 80%. These inferior swing mechanics may predispose amateur players to muscle strains, facet disease, or herniated discs in the spine. Improved swing technique and physical fitness are the keys to avoiding back pain. Strength, flexibility, and endurance all play a part: fatigue leads to uncoordinated muscle firing, resulting in injuries. Effective warm-ups, stretching, and core-strengthening work will all lessen injury risk. Players with recurrent back pain should change to a smooth, flowing 'classic' swing - pelvis and shoulders rotate together, and the forward heel lifts at the top of the backswing - to reduce torque on their spines. In the follow-through, the player should learn to adopt a straight-up body position, avoiding hyperextension of the lumbar spine. Wrist and hand Most injuries occur in the left (leading) hand. During the golf swing of a right-handed golfer, the left wrist undergoes a smaller arc of dorsiflexion and palmar-flexion but a larger ulnar and radial deviation than the right wrist (Chao et al. 1987)^[5]. Overuse or poor wrist control during the swing can cause excessive movement leading to injury. Fractures: These are uncommon, but fractures of the hamate (the triangular bone in the hand sitting below the ring and little fingers) are a golfing speciality, accounting for a third of all hamate breaks (Gupta et al. 1989)^[6]. Despite this, damage to the hook of the hamate - caused by a direct blow from the handle of the golf club during a 'fat shot' - is often overlooked. Patients complain of vague, deep-seated pain or a weak grip. There are local tenderness and pain to resist flexion of the little finger. A carpal tunnel X-ray view or a CT scan is necessary to show the fracture radiographically. Chronic fractures may lead to rupture of flexor tendons to the ring and little fingers and neuropathy of the ulnar nerve (Bowen 1973)^[7]. The acute hook of hamate fractures rarely heals, so painful bone fragments will likely need to be surgically excised, after which full activity is regained within four to six weeks. To prevent this injury, the butt of the club should be of appropriate size and length, extending beyond the palm of the leading hand. Tendon injuries: De Quervain's Disease is a tenosynovitis of the abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis (deep muscles of the forearm). This overuse injury is caused by a tight club grip and repeated ulnar deviation during the golf swing. Clinical findings include swelling and tenderness at the radial styloid and a positive Finkelstein test (ulnar deviation of the wrist with the thumb fully adducted causes marked pain). Splints, taping, and NSAIDs will relieve mild symptoms. Severe cases usually need corticosteroid injection. Where inflammation has resulted in thickening and stenosis of the fibro-osseous tunnel, surgery is indicated. Flexor carpi ulnaris and flexor carpi radialis tendinitis are found in the right hand of the right-handed golfer, arising from the broader range of flexion and extension in the right (trailing) hand during the swing. Crepitus, localised swelling, tenderness, and pain to resist palmar flexion is present in both FCU and FCR tendinitis. Resisted pronation and radial deviation will cause pain in FCR tendinitis. Radiographs can show up calcific deposits in the tendon of FCU (Kief Haber and Stern 1992)^[8]. Splints (in neutral position), NSAIDs, a temporary activity restriction, and corticosteroid injections are usually successful, but recalcitrant cases may require surgery. Extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis is characterised by tenderness over the ulnar aspect of the dorsal wrist. Symptoms are exacerbated by forced ulnar deviation and flexion of the wrist. Golfers with a tendency to 'casting' are at risk of developing this inflammation. It can usually be treated conservatively as with FCU/FCR above, plus modification of the swing. Pain in the same region may alternatively indicate a rupture of the ulnar septum with subluxation of ECU. In this case, the golfer usually complains of a painful snap as the subluxed tendon reduces during pronation of the forearm in the down-swing. Acute cases should be immobilised for six weeks. Chronic cases may respond to taping but will usually require reconstruction of the fibro-osseous tunnel. Elbow Lateral epicondylitis (tennis elbow) is golfers' most common elbow problem. It occurs on the outer aspect of the left elbow in the right-handed golfer. The motion of the left arm during the swing is similar to the backhand tennis stroke. The muscle contraction of the left elbow extensor mass during impact to maintain control of the club usually produces the injury. Clinically there is tenderness over the extensor mass 1-2cm distal to the lateral epicondyle. In severe cases, resisted wrist extension or passive wrist flexion will aggravate the pain. The most effective short-term treatment is corticosteroid injection, but to keep the condition at bay, patients will need to modify their activity (Smidt et al. 2002)^[9]. Once the acute symptoms have gone, patients should seek advice from a golf professional to reduce grip tension and swing errors (especially a flat swing plane). Clubs should have large grips, more flexible shafts (graphite or mechanically filtered steel), and heads with more significant sweet spots to reduce vibration. A counterforce brace in the proximal forearm significantly reduces vibration and acceleration forces at the elbow (Walther et al. 2002)^[10]. In recalcitrant cases, surgery is indicated. Medial epicondylitis (golfer's elbow) is an overuse syndrome involving the musculotendinous origins of the flexor-pronator mass. Swing technique errors such as 'hitting from the top' can create excessive valgus stress on the elbow and lead to tension overload injury to the flexor-pronator group. Patients describe aching pain on the inner side of the elbow, frequently radiating into the forearm. Patients may also complain of grip strength weakness and pain to resisted wrist pronation and flexion. The associated ulnar nerve symptoms of this condition are probably secondary to local inflammation, resulting in neuritis and entrapment. Conservative treatment is similar to that for lateral epicondylitis. Once symptoms have improved, patients should follow a supervised rehab programme. Initially, exercises are done with the elbow flexed, progressing into more significant extension as symptoms improve. The goal is to achieve better levels of strength and endurance than pre-injury. And, as with tennis elbow, the golfer must improve their technique and equipment. Counterforce bracing is helpful. Shoulder Shoulder pain is less common in golf than in overhead sports, but overuse injuries are frequently seen in the lead arm. Watch out for referred shoulder pain arising from cervical spondylosis, cervical disc disease, diaphragmatic irritation, and myocardial ischaemia. The acromioclavicular joint is more commonly affected than the glenohumeral joint (Mallon and Colosimo 1995)^[11]. At the top of the backswing, there is significant cross-body adduction with an elevation of the left arm to 120 degrees. The cartilage separating the two articular surfaces of the acromioclavicular joint starts to deteriorate in the second decade of life. Repeated compression of a degenerated AC joint during the back-swing can lead to anterior shoulder pain. Treat initially by avoiding activities that worsen the pain, plus NSAIDs for pain relief. If pain persists, intra-articular steroid injection has improved symptoms for at least 12 months (Hossain et al. 2003)^[12]. One way to reduce the stress on the AC joint of the leading shoulder without sacrificing clubhead speed is to shorten the swing by ending the back-swing with the clubhead at a one o'clock instead of a three o'clock position. Golfers with persistent symptoms and advanced arthritis may benefit from resectioning of the distal clavicle to unload the painful joint. Rotator cuff impairment will often cause shoulder pain in golfers from middle-age upwards (Jobe et al. 1986)^[13]. Indeed, the incidence of rotator cuff tears increases significantly after age 5O (Milgrom et al. 1995)^[14]. Electromyographic (EMG) studies of professional golfers have shown that the rotator cuff and the subscapularis muscle are highly active throughout the swing. Repeated stress to a degenerated tendon may lead to fibre failure, producing symptoms of bursitis or tendinitis; in cases of significant failure, the golfer will feel weakness elevating the shoulder. Partial rotator cuff tears are substantially more painful on resisted muscle action than complete tears. Patients will usually complain of pain and tenderness in the anterolateral shoulder, crepitus, and stiffness. Selective isometric testing of muscle strength can help identify the tendon defect: resisted elevation of the arm held in 90 degrees of flexion and in a mild internal rotation ('empty can test') can detect supraspinatus weakness The Gerber lift-off test (resisted hand-behind-back move away from the body) is a very sensitive indicator for subscapularis weakness resisted external rotation of the arm held at the side in neutral with the elbow flexed 90 degrees will show infraspinatus weakness. Patients with partial-thickness rotator cuff tears should be started on NSAIDs and an exercise regime including strengthening and stretching to restore normal flexibility. If non-operative treatment fails, patients may benefit from careful arthroscopic surgical debridement. Symptomatic patients with full-thickness or partial tears higher than 50% should be offered surgical repair. Posterior instability: Younger competitive golfers may describe the pain and a sense of instability during their golf swing. Some players even complain of an audible clunk when the left lead arm is fully adducted and internally rotated at the top of the backswing or the initiation of the forward swing. The unopposed rotation action of the subscapularis muscle (which is highly active during the golf swing) may lead to posterior instability of the shoulder joint. Physical examination typically reveals pain or symptoms of instability when the arm is flexed, adducted, and internally rotated. An axial load is applied to the elbow with the arm abducted 90 degrees and in neutral rotation. Posterior subluxation with a click may be noted. Most patients respond to an aggressive rehab programme of rotator cuff strengthening. If not, operative stabilisation, usually combined with subacromial decompression, is indicated (Hovis et al. 2002)^[15]. References McCARROLL, J.R. and GIOE, T.J. (1995) Professional golfers and the price they pay. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 10, p. 54-70. McCARROLL, J.R. (1996)The frequency of golf injuries. C//D/CS in Sports Medicine, 15, p. 1-7. HOSEA, T.M. and GATT C.J. (1996) Back pain in golf. Clinics in Sports Medicine, 15 (1), p. 37-53. HOSEA, T.M., GATT C.J. and GERTNER, E. (1994) Biomechanic analysis of the golfer's back. In: STOVER, C.N. et al. Feeling Up to Par: Medicine from Tee to Green, Philadelphia, FA Davis CHAO, E.Y.S. et al. (1987) Biomechanics of the golf swing as related to club handle design. Biomechanics in Sports, A 1987 Update, DE-Vol 13/BED, 6, p. 107-111. GUPTA, A. et al. (1989) Fractures of the hook of the hamate. Injury, 20 (5), p. 284-286. BOWEN, T.L. (1973) Injuries of the hamate bone. Hand, 5, p. 235-238. KIEF HABER, T.R. and STERN, P.J. (1992) Upper extremity tendinitis and overuse syndromes in the athlete. Clin Sports Med, 11, p. 39-56. SMIDT, N. et al. (2002) Corticosteroid injections physiotherapy, or a wait and see policy for lat. Epicondylitis: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet, 359, p. 657-662. WALTHER, M. et al. (2002) Biomechanical evaluation of braces used for treatment of epicondylitis. J Shoulder Elbow Surg, 11, p. 265-270. MALLON, W.J. and COLOSIMO, A.J. (1995) Acromioclavicular joint injury in competitive golfers. J South OrthopAssoc, 4 (4), p. 277-282. HOSSIAN, S. et al. (2003) lntra-articular steroid injection in the treatment of primary acromioclavicular arthritis. An assessment of the therapeutic effectiveness. JBJS (Br), 85, p. 72. JOBE, F.W. et al. (1986) Rotator cuff function during a golf swing. Am J Sports Med, 14, p. 388-392. MILGROM, C. et al. (1995) Rotator cuff changes in asymptomatic adults. The effect of age, hand dominance and gender. JBJS (Br), 77, p. 296-298. HOVIS, D, et al. (2002) Posterior instability of the shoulder with secondary impingement in elite golfers. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 30 (6), p. 886-890. Page Reference If you quote information from this page in your work, then the reference for this page is: GARRIDO, E. (2008) Golf Specific Injury overview [WWW] Available from: https://www.brianmac.co.uk/articles/article029.htm [Accessed About the Author Enrique Garrido is a clinical fellow in orthopaedics at University College London. His clinical interests include the adaptations of bone and soft tissue to exercise.